Antarctica

Antarctica is Earth's Southernmost continent. It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.

Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains.

Golden eagle does not breed exclusively in Antarctica

Mount Erebus is the second-highest volcano in Antarctica (after Mount Sidley) and the southernmost active volcano on Earth. It is the sixth highest ultra mountain on an island. With a summit elevation of 3,794 meters (12,448 ft), it is located on Ross Island, which is also home to three inactive volcanoes, Mount Terror, Mount Bird, and Mount Terra Nova.

Polar bears are not in Antarctica.

Lake Vostok is the largest of Antarctica's almost 400 known subglacial lakes. Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold, beneath Russia's Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet, which is at 3,488 m (11,444 ft) above mean sea level. The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4,000 m (13,100 ft) under the surface of the ice, which places it at approximately 500 m (1,600 ft) below sea level.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58. It entered into force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by many other nations. The total number of Parties to the Treaty is now 53.

At 14,000,000 square kilometres (5,400,000 square miles), it is the fifth-largest continent. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi; 6,200 ft) in thickness, which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Answer: a) McMurdo Station

Answer: b) Palmer Station

Answer: c) Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station

The Antarctic ice sheet has an average thickness of 1.9 kilometers or 1.2 miles.

About 70% of the world's freshwater reserves are frozen in Antarctica.

Antarctica holds the record for the lowest measured temperature on Earth, which is -89.2°C (-128.6°F).

Polar bears are not native to Antarctica.
Penguins, seals, and tardigrades are some of the native animal species.

The first confirmed landing on Antarctica was made by a Norwegian team in 1895.

Antarctica is governed by about 30 countries that are parties to the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System.

According to the Antarctic Treaty, military activity, mining, nuclear explosions, and nuclear waste disposal are all prohibited in Antarctica.

Tourism and fishing are among the main human activities in and around Antarctica.

During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at research stations in Antarctica.

Human activity in Antarctica has a significant impact on the continent through pollution, ozone depletion, and climate change.
These environmental consequences pose challenges for the delicate Antarctic ecosystem and its wildlife.
Efforts are being made to mitigate these impacts and preserve the pristine nature of Antarctica.

The Transantarctic Mountains are a range that stretches across Antarctica, dividing it into East Antarctica (in the Eastern Hemisphere) and West Antarctica (in the Western Hemisphere).
The Southern Ocean surrounds Antarctica, but it doesn't divide it into East and West.

The Gamburtsev mountain range is the correct hidden feature buried under the ice in Antarctica.
Lake Vostok, although another hidden feature, is a large subglacial lake.
The Lambert system is a massive rift valley system in Antarctica, but it's not related to the Gamburtsev range.
The East African Great Rift Valley is not located in Antarctica.

Krill are the most important organisms in Antarctica's ecosystem.
They are small shrimp-like crustaceans that play a crucial role in the food chain.
Many animals, including whales, penguins, and seals, depend on krill as their primary food source.
While whales and penguins are significant species in Antarctica, they rely on krill as their main food, making krill more essential to the overall ecosystem.
Plankton refers to a broad category of organisms, including both plant-like (phytoplankton) and animal-like (zooplankton) organisms, which are an important food source for krill.

Scientists believe that Antarctica was once connected to South America before continental drift separated them.
This connection may have facilitated the migration of certain species, such as marsupials, from South America to Antarctica.

Due to the harsh conditions in Antarctica, only hardy plant forms such as moss, lichen, and algae can survive.
The extreme cold, lack of moisture, limited sunlight, and poor soil make it inhospitable for trees, shrubs, and flowering plants.

Plankton, both phytoplankton (plant-like organisms) and zooplankton (animal-like organisms), serve as the primary source of food for many animals in Antarctica.
Krill, which feed on plankton, are particularly important, as they form the basis of the food chain for animals such as whales, penguins, and seals.

Whales heavily rely on krill as their primary food source in Antarctica.
They are filter feeders and consume large quantities of krill.
Seals primarily feed on fish and other marine creatures, while birds have a more varied diet that may include fish, krill, and other marine organisms.

Penguins are adapted to life in the ocean and have streamlined bodies designed for swimming.
While they possess wings, their wings are modified into flippers, which are better suited for swimming rather than flying.
Penguins' wings lack the necessary structure and adaptations for sustained flight.

Penguins come ashore or onto ice primarily for mating purposes.
They form large breeding colonies and nest together in a group.
The land or ice provides a relatively safe environment for penguins to lay their eggs, incubate them, and raise their chicks.

The largest land animal in Antarctica is the wingless midge, a small insect species.
Penguins and seals are marine animals, while polar bears are not native to Antarctica.

Roald Amundsen, leading a Norwegian team, won the race to the South Pole.
He successfully reached the South Pole on December 14, 1911, beating Robert Falcon Scott's British expedition.

Roald Amundsen utilized sleigh dogs as the primary mode of transportation during his South Pole expedition.
This proved to be a successful choice, as the dogs were better suited for the harsh Antarctic conditions compared to Scott's choice of ponies and motor sleds.

Robert Falcon Scott and three members of his expedition froze to death while waiting for a blizzard to subside during their return journey from the South Pole.
Their bodies were discovered eight months later along with Scott's records and diary.

The primary occupation of people living in Antarctica is scientific research.
Most people who live in Antarctica are scientists stationed at national science stations along the coast.
They study various aspects of Antarctica, including weather patterns, animal life, glaciers, and the Earth's atmosphere.

Scientists studying the weather long ago in Antarctica drill ice cores.
These ice cores contain layers of ice that have built up over thousands of years, providing valuable information about past climate conditions and atmospheric composition.

The main mode of transportation for people visiting Antarctica for short visits is ships.
Companies in South America offer Antarctic vacations, and people pay to travel to Antarctica on ships.
Some individuals may also use their own boats for the journey.

Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle during their expeditions to Antarctica.
This significant accomplishment occurred on January 17, 1773, and again in January 1774.
However, they did not make any direct discoveries related to Lake Vostok, the Transantarctic Mountain Range, or the South Magnetic Pole.

Climate change and global warming are showing the effect of decreased ice coverage in Antarctica, particularly on the Antarctic Peninsula.
Rising temperatures have led to the melting and retreat of ice shelves and glaciers in some areas, resulting in reduced ice coverage.

Antarctica receives an average equivalent of about 150 mm (6 in) of water per year, mostly in the form of snow.

Antarctica has a polar climate, which is characterized by extremely cold temperatures, strong winds, and little precipitation.

East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica due to its higher elevation.
Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry.

The relative warmth of the Arctic Ocean is transferred through the Arctic sea ice, which helps moderate temperatures in the Arctic region.

Strong katabatic winds blow off the polar plateau in Antarctica, often reaching storm force.
These winds can be powerful and influence the weather conditions in coastal areas.

During the summer season, the South Pole receives more solar radiation than the equator due to the 24 hours of sunlight it receives each day.

Heavy snowfalls are common in the coastal regions of Antarctica, where recorded snowfalls of up to 1.22 m (48 in) in 48 hours have been observed.

Antarctica contains about 90% of the world's ice, which if all melted would cause a global sea level rise of about 58 meters (190 feet).

Sea ice around Antarctica is formed from the freezing of ocean water and does not contribute to changes in sea level when it melts.

The loss of ice shelf buttressing has been identified as the major cause of ice loss on the West Antarctic ice sheet, but has also been observed around the East Antarctic ice sheet.

Antarctica's total contribution to sea level rise has been estimated to be 8 to 14 mm (0.31 to 0.55 in).

A 2018 systematic review study estimated that ice loss across the entire continent was 43 gigatonnes (Gt) per year on average during the period from 1992 to 2002, but accelerated to an average of 220 Gt per year during the five years from 2012 to 2017.

A possible explanation for the lack of significant change in sea ice extent around Antarctica since 1978 is that thermohaline circulation transports warmed water to deeper layers in the Southern Ocean so that the surface remains relatively cool.

A tipping point for the West Antarctic ice sheet is estimated to be between 1.5 and 2.0 °C (2.7 and 3.6 °F) of global warming.

The Antarctic Peninsula has experienced the most ice loss among the regions of Antarctica.
This region has seen significant warming and the collapse of several ice shelves, leading to accelerated ice loss.

If the West Antarctic ice sheet fully collapses, it is estimated to contribute to a sea level rise of 2 to 5 meters (6.6 to 16.4 feet).
The West Antarctic ice sheet is considered vulnerable to warming ocean waters, and its collapse would have significant implications for global sea levels.

If the total ice loss in Antarctica leads to the complete loss of the East Antarctic ice sheet, it is projected to result in around 6 to 12 meters (20 to 39 feet) or more of sea level rise.

The peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subjected to higher temperatures as a result of ozone depletion.

Ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex were associated with an increase in sea ice extent in Antarctica until 2014, as observed from the late 1970s onwards.
However, since 2014, the coverage of Antarctic sea ice has been decreasing rapidly.

British scientists discovered a large area of low ozone concentration over Antarctica.

Ozone depletion in Antarctica is primarily caused by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons into the atmosphere.

Polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica act as catalysts for chemical reactions that eventually lead to the destruction of ozone.

Ozone depletion in the stratosphere causes a cooling effect of around 6 °C (11 °F).

The cooling of the stratosphere strengthens the polar vortex and prevents the outflow of cold air near the South Pole, which in turn cools the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet.

The emissions of ozone-depleting substances have been restricted under the Montreal Protocol, which is an international agreement.

It is predicted that by the 2060s, levels of ozone above Antarctica are expected to have returned to values last recorded in the 1980s.

Since the late 1970s until 2014, the coverage of Antarctic sea ice had been increasing.
However, since then, it has been decreasing rapidly.

Antarctic fur seals were heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for their pelts by seal hunters from the United States and the United Kingdom.

Invertebrate life in Antarctica includes species of microscopic mites, lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill, springtails, and various marine snails.

Most species in Antarctica survived the glacial cycles by migrating to isolated warmer areas or ice-free regions during periods of extremely cold climate.

The Belgian antarctic midge is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica, reaching a size of 6 mm (1/4 inch).

Antarctic krill is considered the keystone species in the Southern Ocean ecosystem as it serves as an important food organism for various marine animals, including whales, seals, squid, and many bird species.

Leopard seals are apex predators in the Antarctic ecosystem and migrate across the Southern Ocean in search of food.

There are approximately 40 bird species that breed on or close to Antarctica, including petrels, penguins, cormorants, and gulls.

The emperor penguin is the only penguin species that breeds during the winter in Antarctica.
It breeds farther south than any other penguin species.

The Census of Marine Life conducted during the International Polar Year found that over 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, indicating a connection between the two regions.

The distribution of marine organisms between the polar regions may be aided by temperature differences between the deep ocean at the poles and the equator, as well as major current systems or marine conveyor belts that can transport eggs and larvae.

The largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica is the flightless midge (Belgica antarctica).
Despite its small size, reaching only about 6 mm (1/4 inch) in length, the flightless midge holds the distinction of being the largest land-dwelling organism in Antarctica.
This insect has adapted to survive the extreme cold and harsh conditions of the continent.

Penguins are the bird species that breed during the winter in Antarctica.
Among the various penguin species, the emperor penguin is particularly known for its unique breeding behavior, as it survives the harshest conditions by breeding in the coldest months of the Antarctic winter.
This adaptation allows them to take advantage of the abundant food resources in the Southern Ocean during this time of year.

Among the recorded species of fungi in the Antarctic region, approximately 750 are non-lichen-forming.
These fungi play a significant role in shaping the rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges.
They have adapted to extreme conditions and exhibit characteristics such as a simplified morphology, resilient cells, and the ability to remain active at very low temperatures.

Melanin, a pigment present in fungi, plays a crucial role in the adaptation of fungi in Antarctica.
It provides protection against harmful UV radiation, which is prevalent in the high-latitude region.
By having strongly melanised cells, fungi can shield themselves from the damaging effects of UV radiation, ensuring their survival in this extreme environment.

Algae and cyanobacteria in Antarctica share similar adaptations with fungi.
They have metabolism systems that can remain active at very low temperatures, allowing them to thrive in the extreme cold.
While algae and cyanobacteria contribute to the overall ecosystem of Antarctica, they are not exclusively found in bird dung.

The Antarctic Peninsula is home to three species of flowering plants.
These species are Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass), Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort), and the non-native Poa annua (annual bluegrass).
The presence of these flowering plants is relatively limited in Antarctica due to the harsh climate and unfavorable growing conditions.

During the Cretaceous period, Antarctica was primarily dominated by a fern-conifer ecosystem.
This ecosystem consisted of a combination of ferns and coniferous trees, representing a diverse range of plant life.
Over time, the climate and environmental conditions changed, leading to the transformation of Antarctica's ecosystems.

Several factors contribute to the limitation of plant growth in present-day Antarctica.
The freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, and the scarcity of moisture and sunlight collectively inhibit extensive vegetation and limit plant diversity in the region.
These challenging conditions make the survival and establishment of plant life in Antarctica extremely difficult.

The correct answer is B) 1,150.
Scientists have recorded approximately 1,150 species of fungi in the Antarctic region.
These fungi have adapted to the extreme conditions of Antarctica and have been found in various habitats, including structural cavities within porous rocks.
The recorded diversity of fungi in Antarctica highlights their ability to survive and thrive in this unique environment.

Fungi in Antarctica possess several characteristics that allow them to thrive in extreme environments.
They have thick-walled and strongly melanised cells, which provide protection and stability.
These cells also contribute to their resistance to UV radiation, an important adaptation in the high-latitude region of Antarctica.
Additionally, fungi in Antarctica have developed metabolism systems that can remain active at very low temperatures, enabling them to survive in the cold and harsh conditions of the continent.
Thus, all the options A), B), and C) are correct, and the correct answer is D) All of the above.

Antarctica is home to approximately 700 species of algae.
Among these, around half are marine phytoplankton.
Algae play a crucial role in the Antarctic ecosystem as primary producers, contributing to the food web and supporting other organisms in the region.
During the summer, multicolored snow algae become particularly abundant in the coastal regions of Antarctica.

Bacteria have been discovered as deep as 800 meters (0.50 miles) beneath the ice in Antarctica.
This finding suggests that there may be a native bacterial community within the subterranean water body of Lake Vostok, a large subglacial lake in East Antarctica.
The study of microbial life in extreme environments such as Antarctica helps scientists understand the potential for life in similar conditions elsewhere in the universe.

It is believed that Lake Vostok, a subglacial lake located beneath the Antarctic ice sheet, may harbor a native bacterial community.
The extreme conditions of the lake, including its isolation from the outside world for millions of years, have sparked scientific interest in studying the potential for life in such extreme environments.
The discovery of microbial life in Lake Vostok could have implications for the search for life on other icy worlds, such as Jupiter's moon Europa.

Highly resilient extremophile bacteria have been found in the highly alkaline waters of Lake Untersee in Antarctica.
These bacteria have adapted to survive in the inhospitable conditions of the lake, and their presence demonstrates the ability of organisms to thrive in extreme environments.
Such findings contribute to the understanding of the potential for life in cold and methane-rich environments, both on Earth and potentially in extraterrestrial settings.

The first international agreement to protect Antarctica's biodiversity was adopted in 1964.
This agreement represented an early recognition of the need to preserve the unique ecological values of Antarctica.
Since then, further measures and treaties have been implemented to regulate human activities and minimize the impact on the fragile Antarctic environment.

The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, an international treaty that came into force in 1980, regulates fisheries in Antarctica.
The aim of this treaty is to preserve the ecological relationships and sustainably manage the marine resources in the region.

The Madrid Protocol, adopted in 1991 and entered into force in 1998, designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science." It specifically prohibits all mining activities on the continent.
The protocol was established to ensure the long-term protection of the Antarctic environment and its ecosystems.
It emphasizes the importance of scientific research and environmental stewardship in Antarctica.

Greenpeace, an international environmental organization, established a base on Ross Island in Antarctica from 1987 to 1992.
This initiative was part of their campaign to advocate for the establishment of Antarctica as a World Park, dedicated to the protection of its unique ecosystems and biodiversity.
Greenpeace's presence in Antarctica aimed to raise awareness about the fragility of the region and the need for stronger conservation measures.

The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was established in 1994 by the International Whaling Commission (IWC).
The sanctuary covers a vast area of 50 million square kilometers (19 million square miles) and completely surrounds the Antarctic continent.
Within this sanctuary, all commercial whaling is prohibited, aiming to protect whale populations and their habitats in the Southern Ocean.
However, it's important to note that Japan has continued to hunt whales in the area, claiming it to be for research purposes.

Biodiversity in Antarctica faces various threats from human activities.
Some of the key threats include pollution, invasive species, and climate change.
Pollution, such as oil spills or waste disposal, can have detrimental effects on the delicate Antarctic ecosystems.
Invasive species introduced by human activities can disrupt native species and ecological balance.
Climate change is causing rapid changes in the polar regions, including rising temperatures, melting ice, and altered habitats, which can have significant impacts on the survival of Antarctic species.
These threats emphasize the need for conservation efforts and sustainable practices in order to protect the unique biodiversity of Antarctica.

Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy, is credited with being the first person to see Antarctica or its ice shelf.
On 27 January 1820, he recorded sighting an ice shelf, three days before Edward Bransfield and 10 months before Nathaniel Palmer.

The oldest known human remains in the Antarctic region were discovered on Yamana Beach at the South Shetland Islands and are dated from 1819 to 1825.
The remains belong to a young woman who was likely part of a sealing expedition.

Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, along with Mikhail Lazarev, led the First Russian Antarctic Expedition.
They sailed on the ships Vostok and Mirny, reaching a point within 32 km of Queen Maud Land and sighting an ice shelf on 27 January 1820.

The first documented landing on Antarctica was made by the American sealer John Davis.
He is believed to have landed at Hughes Bay on 7 February 1821, although there is some dispute among historians regarding whether he landed on the Antarctic continent or an offshore island.

Jules Dumont d'Urville, a French explorer, claimed French sovereignty over Adélie Land in 1840.
Some members of his expedition disembarked on the Dumoulin Islands, off the coast of Adélie Land, where they took samples, erected the French flag, and declared French sovereignty over the territory.

The American captain Charles Wilkes led an expedition in 1838-1839 and was the first to claim he had discovered the Antarctic continent.
However, it's important to note that his claim was later contested, and the true nature of the continent was not fully understood at that time.

James Clark Ross, a British naval officer, failed to realize that the various patches of land recently discovered by American, French, and English navigators formed a single continent.
He referred to them as separate patches of land on the verge of the Antarctic Circle, without recognizing their connection as part of a larger landmass.

The Norwegian-Swedish whaling ship Antarctic made the first confirmed landing on the continental mass of Antarctica in 1895.
They reached Cape Adare, marking a significant milestone in the exploration of the continent.

Captain James Cook, during his expeditions, crossed the Antarctic Circle multiple times.
His ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773, and again in January 1774, coming close to the Antarctic coast.

Edward Bransfield, a British sailor and captain in the Royal Navy, is credited with the first sighting of the Antarctic Peninsula.
On 30 January 1820, he discovered the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, coming within about 120 km of the coast before retreating due to field ice.

In 1937, Ingrid Christensen became the first woman to step onto the Antarctic mainland.
Her landing marked an important milestone in Antarctic exploration and paved the way for future female explorers in the region.

On October 31, 1956, a U.S.
Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J.
Dufek successfully landed an aircraft at the South Pole.
This achievement marked another significant milestone in Antarctic exploration and opened up new possibilities for transportation and logistics in the region.

In 1969, as a publicity stunt, six women were flown to the South Pole.
This event aimed to highlight the capabilities of women in extreme environments and to raise awareness about the role of women in scientific research and exploration.

Børge Ousland, the Norwegian explorer, holds the record for the fastest unsupported journey to the South Pole, completing the journey in just 34 days.
This remarkable achievement demonstrates his exceptional endurance and skill in navigating the challenging Antarctic terrain.

Edgeworth David assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party during the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton.
This party became the first to climb Mount Erebus and reach the south magnetic pole, contributing valuable scientific knowledge to the understanding of the region.

The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica were British and American sealers.
They began spending extended periods, sometimes a year or more, on South Georgia from 1786 onward.
During the whaling era, the population of the island fluctuated based on the season, with the majority of whalers being Norwegian, and an increasing proportion from Britain.

The number of people conducting scientific research and other work on Antarctica and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in the winter to about 5,000 in the summer.
These individuals are stationed at various research stations, some of which are staffed year-round, while others have personnel rotating on one-year assignments.

The Russian Orthodox Holy Trinity Church at the Bellingshausen Station on King George Island was opened in 2004.
The church is manned year-round by one or two priests who are rotated every year, providing religious services to the station's personnel.

Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, a Norwegian girl, was the first child born in the southern polar region.
She was born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913, marking an important milestone in the history of human presence in Antarctica.

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica.
This includes the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvres, and weapons testing.
The treaty emphasizes the peaceful and scientific nature of activities in Antarctica, with military personnel or equipment permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes.

Operation 90, conducted by the Argentine military in 1965, had the objective of strengthening Argentina's claim in Antarctica.
The operation involved establishing a temporary base and conducting various activities to reinforce Argentina's presence and territorial claims in the region.

Emilio Marcos Palma holds the distinction of being the first person to be born on the Antarctic mainland.
He was born at the Esperanza Base of the Argentine Army, south of the 60th parallel south, marking a significant milestone in the history of human births in Antarctica.

The Antarctic Treaty was established to protect the environment of Antarctica and preserve the continent for peaceful purposes.
It prohibits military activity, promotes scientific research, and emphasizes the conservation and sustainable use of Antarctica's resources.
The treaty has been instrumental in maintaining international cooperation and preventing territorial disputes in the region.

The early inhabitants of regions near Antarctica, particularly in South Georgia, were primarily involved in whaling and sealing activities.
British and American sealers spent extended periods in these regions, hunting and harvesting seals for their valuable fur and oil.
Whaling also played a significant role in the local economy during this time.

Among the early inhabitants of South Georgia, the highest proportion of whalers came from Norway.
Norwegian whalers played a significant role in the whaling industry in the region, contributing to the local economy and population during the whaling era.

Antarctica's status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System.
These agreements define Antarctica as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S and establish rules and provisions for the governance of the continent.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed by twelve countries in 1959.
These countries include the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and others.
Since then, an additional 42 countries have acceded to the treaty, bringing the total number of parties to 54.

Decisions under the Antarctic Treaty are made by consensus among the participating countries.
This means that all parties must agree on a decision, and there is no voting process.
Consensus-based decision-making ensures that all countries have an equal say and encourages cooperation and cooperation among the treaty parties.

The main purpose of the Antarctic Treaty is to preserve Antarctica as a scientific preserve and protect its unique environment.
The treaty promotes freedom of scientific investigation and emphasizes the conservation and sustainable use of Antarctica's resources.
It prohibits military activities and establishes guidelines for environmental protection.

As of 2022, 29 countries have consultative status under the Antarctic Treaty.
These countries are recognized for their significant research contributions to Antarctica and are eligible to participate in decision-making regarding the governance and management of the continent.

In 1539, the King of Spain, Charles V, created the Governorate of Terra Australis, which encompassed the territories south of the Strait of Magellan, including Antarctica.
Spain claimed these lands and later incorporated them into the Governorate of Chile.

Presently, seven countries claim sovereignty over regions of Antarctica.
These countries include Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom.
However, the validity of these claims is not universally recognized.

The Argentine government formally protested against the British claim of Queen Elizabeth Land in 2012.
The British Foreign & Commonwealth Office designated a previously unnamed area in Antarctica as Queen Elizabeth Land in tribute to Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee.
This led to a diplomatic dispute as Argentina has its own territorial claims in Antarctica and considers the British claims to be in violation of international agreements.

The claims by Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, and Norway in Antarctica do not overlap, and these countries mutually recognize each other's claims.
They have established their respective territories within Antarctica based on historical and geographical factors.
These claims are governed by the Antarctic Treaty System and are respected among the treaty parties.

New territorial claims on Antarctica have been suspended since the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959.
The treaty prohibits new claims and emphasizes the peaceful nature of Antarctica for scientific research and international cooperation.
While existing claims are maintained, the focus is on scientific investigation and environmental protection rather than territorial expansion.

Antarctica is known to have deposits of various minerals, including coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, and gold.
However, these resources are not present in economically viable quantities, meaning they cannot be extracted on a large scale due to technical and economic challenges.
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty restricts the exploitation of these resources for environmental conservation purposes.

Tourists have been visiting Antarctica since 1957.
However, their activities are regulated by the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and the Environmental Protocol.
The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators serves as the self-regulatory body for the tourism industry in Antarctica, ensuring that tourism activities are conducted in an environmentally responsible manner.

The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) is the organization responsible for setting guidelines and regulations for tourism in Antarctica.
IAATO works to promote safe and environmentally responsible tourism practices in the region.
They establish guidelines for visitor activities, including landing limits, closed or restricted zones, and other measures to mitigate the potential adverse effects of tourism on the Antarctic environment.

The Mount Erebus disaster in 1979 led to the suspension of overland sightseeing flights to Antarctica.
The disaster occurred when an Air New Zealand plane crashed into Mount Erebus, resulting in the loss of all 257 people on board.
As a result, overland sightseeing flights from Australia and New Zealand were discontinued.
However, commercial overflights from Australia resumed in the mid-1990s.

According to the information provided, over 74,000 tourists visited Antarctica during the 2019/2020 season.
It's worth noting that this number includes both tourists who traveled on cruise ships and those who did not leave the ships to explore on land.

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which came into effect in 1998, aims to promote scientific research and environmental protection in Antarctica.
It restricts the exploitation of Antarctic resources, including minerals, and establishes measures to preserve the unique environment of the continent.

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty is subject to review every 20 years.
The most recent review took place in 1998, and the next review is scheduled for 2048.
These reviews provide an opportunity to reassess and update the provisions of the protocol to ensure the continued protection of the Antarctic environment.

Decisions within the Antarctic Treaty System are made by consensus.
This means that all participating countries must agree on a particular decision for it to be adopted.
This consensus-based approach allows for cooperation and collaboration among the treaty parties, ensuring that decisions are reached through mutual agreement.

In 2015, Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land, an area of Antarctica, as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole.
This move by Norway asserted its territorial claim over the region and expanded the defined boundaries of Queen Maud Land.

McMurdo Station is the largest research station in Antarctica.
It has the capacity to house more than 1,000 people and is operated by the United States.
The station supports a wide range of scientific research activities and serves as a logistical hub for various expeditions and fieldwork in the region.

Princess Elisabeth station, operated by the Belgian Antarctic Research Expedition, is known for being completely portable.
It was designed to be energy-efficient and environmentally friendly, making it the first carbon-neutral research station in Antarctica.
Its portability allows for flexibility in its deployment and relocation to different areas of scientific interest.

Geologists in Antarctica primarily study plate tectonics, the geological history of the continent, meteorites, and the breakup of Gondwana.
Antarctica's unique geological features and preserved fossil records provide valuable insights into the Earth's ancient past, continental drift, and the evolution of the Antarctic continent.

Glaciologists in Antarctica focus their research on the study of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets.
They investigate the dynamics of ice movement, ice formations, and the impacts of climate change on Antarctica's ice masses.
This research is crucial for understanding the global climate system and predicting future sea-level rise.

Antarctica's high elevation, low temperatures, and thin atmosphere make it an ideal location for astronomical observations.
The high elevation allows for clearer views of space due to a thinner atmosphere and reduced light pollution.
Additionally, the freezing temperatures result in minimal water vapor, further improving the visibility of celestial objects and enhancing the study of cosmic microwave background radiation and other astronomical phenomena.

The largest neutrino detector in the world, known as the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, is located at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station.
This observatory consists of thousands of optical modules embedded in the ice at depths reaching 2,450 meters (8,040 feet).
The detector is used to study neutrinos, subatomic particles that can provide valuable insights into astrophysical phenomena and high-energy cosmic events.

Antarctica is a unique environment for the study of meteorites because of its dry polar desert conditions.
The lack of liquid water and minimal weathering processes help preserve meteorites, making them more likely to be found intact and in their original state.
The vast expanse of ice and snow also provides a contrasting backdrop, making meteorites more visible and easier to locate.

The first meteorite found in Antarctica was discovered in Adelie Land in 1912.
This finding marked the beginning of Antarctic meteorite research and opened up opportunities to study extraterrestrial materials preserved in the continent's unique polar desert environment.

Meteorites found in Antarctica provide valuable clues about the composition of the Solar System and its early development.
These extraterrestrial rocks offer insights into the chemical makeup of asteroids, the Moon, and even Mars.
By studying Antarctic meteorites, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of the processes that shaped our Solar System billions of years ago.